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Writing assessment can be used for a variety of appropriate purposes, both inside the classroom and outside: providing assistance to students, awarding a grade, placing students in appropriate courses, allowing them to exit a course or sequence of courses, certifying proficiency, and evaluating programs– to name some of the more obvious. Given the high stakes nature of many of these assessment purposes, it is crucial that assessment practices be guided by sound principles to insure that they are valid, fair, and appropriate to the context and purposes for which they designed. This position statement aims to provide that guidance.

In spite of the diverse uses to which writing assessment is put, the general principles undergirding it are similar:

Assessments of written literacy should be designed and evaluated by well-informed current or future teachers of the students being assessed, for purposes clearly understood by all the participants; should elicit from student writers a variety of pieces, preferably over a substantial period of time; should encourage and reinforce good teaching practices; and should be solidly grounded in the latest research on language learning as well as accepted best assessment practices.

Reasons why this is important:

1. Writing assessment is useful primarily as a means of improving teaching and learning. The primary purpose of any assessment should govern its design, its implementation, and the generation and dissemination of its results.

As a result…

A. Best assessment practice is informed by pedagogical and curricular goals, which are in turn formatively affected by the assessment. Teachers or administrators designing assessments should ground the assessment in the classroom, program or departmental context. The goals or outcomes assessed should lead to assessment data which is fed back to those involved with the regular activities assessed so that assessment results may be used to make changes in practice.

B. Best assessment practice is undertaken in response to local goals, not external pressures. Even when external forces require assessment, the local community must assert control of the assessment process, including selection of the assessment instrument and criteria.

C. Best assessment practice provides regular professional development opportunities. Colleges, universities, and secondary schools should make use of assessments as opportunities for professional development and for the exchange of information about student abilities and institutional expectations.

2. Writing is by definition social. Learning to write entails learning to accomplish a range of purposes for a range of audiences in a range of settings.

As a result…

A. Best assessment practice engages students in contextualized, meaningful writing. The assessment of writing must strive to set up writing tasks and situations that identify purposes appropriate to and appealing to the particular students being tested. Additionally, assessment must be contextualized in terms of why, where, and for what purpose it is being undertaken; this context must also be clear to the students being assessed and to all stakeholders.

B. Best assessment practice supports and harmonizes with what practice and research have demonstrated to be effective ways of teaching writing. What is easiest to measure—often by means of a multiple choice test—may correspond least to good writing; choosing a correct response from a set of possible answers is not composing. As important, just asking students to write does not make the assessment instrument a good one. Essay tests that ask students to form and articulate opinions about some important issue, for instance, without time to reflect, talk to others, read on the subject, revise, and have a human audience promote distorted notions of what writing is. They also encourage poor teaching and little learning. Even teachers who recognize and employ the methods used by real writers in working with students can find their best efforts undercut by assessments such as these.

C. Best assessment practice is direct assessment by human readers. Assessment that isolates students and forbids discussion and feedback from others conflicts with what we know about language use and the benefits of social interaction during the writing process; it also is out of step with much classroom practice. Direct assessment in the classroom should provide response that serves formative purposes, helping writers develop and shape ideas, as well as organize, craft sentences, and edit. As stated by the CCCC Position Statement on Teaching, Learning, and Assessing Writing in Digital Environments, “we oppose the use of machine-scored writing in the assessment of writing.” Automated assessment programs do not respond as human readers. While they may promise consistency, they distort the very nature of writing as a complex and context-rich interaction between people. They simplify writing in ways that can mislead writers to focus more on structure and grammar than on what they are saying by using a given structure and style.

Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CORE SYLLABUS
Physics, Chemistry, Biology
(Higher Secondary Stage)

For National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test (NEET) for admission to MBBS courses across the country

Medical Council of India

The Medical Council of India (MCI) recommends the following syllabus for National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test for admission to MBBS courses across the country (NEET- UG) after review of various State syllabi as well as those prepared by CBSE, NCERT and COBSE. This is to establish a uniformity across the country keeping in view the
relevance of different areas in medical education.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

Physics syllabus of class 11th
S.No. Topics Page No.
1 Physical world and measurement 5
2. Kinematics 5
3. Laws of Motion 5
4. Work, Energy and Power 6
5. Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body 6
6. Gravitation 6
7 Properties of Bulk Matter 6-7
8. Thermodynamics 7
9 Behaviour of Perfect Gas and Kinetic Theory 7
10 Oscillations and Waves 7

Physics syllabus of Class 12th
1. Electrostatics 8
2. Current Electricity 8
3. Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism 9
4. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents 9
5. Electromagnetic Waves 9-10
6. Optics 10
7. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation 10
8. Atoms and Nuclei 11
9. Electronic Devices 11

Chemistry syllabus of class 11th
1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 13
2. Structure of Atom 13
3. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 13
4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 13
5. States of Matter: Gases and Liquids 14
6 Thermodynamics 14
7 Equilibrium 14
8 Redox Reactions 14
9. Hydrogen 15
10. s-Block Element (Alkali and Alkaline earth metals) 15
11. Some p-Block Elements 15
12. Organic Chemistry- Some Basic Principles and Techniques 16
13. Hydrocarbons 16
14. Environmental Chemistry 16

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

Chemistry syllabus of class 12th
S.No. Topics Page No.
1. Solid State 17
2. Solutions 17
3. Electrochemistry 17
4. Chemical Kinetics 17
5. Surface Chemistry 18
6. General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements 18
7. p- Block Elements 18
8. d and f Block Elements 19
9. Coordination Compounds 19
10. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 19
11. Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 19-20
12. Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 20
13. Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 20
14. Biomolecules 20
15. Polymers 21
16. Chemistry in Everyday Life 21

Biology syllabus of class 11th
1 Diversity in Living World 23
2. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants 23
3. Cell Structure and Function 23-24
4. Plant Physiology 24
5 Human physiology 25

Biology syllabus of class 12th
1. Reproduction 26
2. Genetics and Evolution 26-27
3. Biology and Human Welfare 27
4. Biotechnology and Its Applications 27
5. Ecology and environment 28

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

PHYSICS

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS CLASS XI SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Physical World and Measurement
Details:-
• Physics: Scope and excitement; nature of physical laws; Physics, technology and society.

• Need for measurement: Units of measurement; systems of units; SI units, fundamental and derived units. Length, mass and time measurements; accuracy and precision of measuring instruments; errors in measurement; significant figures.

• Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.

UNIT II: Kinematics
Details:-
• Frame of reference, Motion in a straight line; Position-time graph, speed and velocity. Uniform and non-uniform motion, average speed and instantaneous velocity. Uniformly accelerated motion, velocity-time and position-time graphs, for uniformly accelerated motion (graphical treatment).

• Elementary concepts of differentiation and integration for describing motion.
Scalar and vector quantities: Position and displacement vectors, general vectors, general vectors and notation, equality of vectors, multiplication of vectors by a real number; addition and subtraction of vectors. Relative velocity.

• Unit vectors. Resolution of a vector in a plane-rectangular components.

• Scalar and Vector products of Vectors. Motion in a plane. Cases of uniform velocity and uniform acceleration- projectile motion. Uniform circular motion.

UNIT III: Laws of Motion
Details:-
• Intuitive concept of force. Inertia, Newton’s first law of motion; momentum and Newton’s second law of motion; impulse; Newton’s third law of motion. Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications.

• Equilibrium of concurrent forces. Static and Kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction, lubrication.

• Dynamics of uniform circular motion. Centripetal force, examples of circular motion (vehicle on level circular road, vehicle on banked road).

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT IV: Work, Energy and Power
Details:-
• Work done by a constant force and variable force; kinetic energy, work-energy theorem, power.

• Notion of potential energy, potential energy of a spring, conservative forces; conservation of mechanical energy (kinetic and potential energies); non- conservative forces; motion in a vertical circle, elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions.

UNIT V: Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body
Details:-
• Centre of mass of a two-particle system, momentum conservation and centre of mass motion. Centre of mass of a rigid body; centre of mass of uniform rod.

• Moment of a force,-torque, angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum with some examples.

• Equilibrium of rigid bodies, rigid body rotation and equation of rotational motion, comparison of linear and rotational motions; moment of inertia, radius of
gyration. Values of M.I. for simple geometrical objects (no derivation).
Statement of parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their applications.

UNIT VI: Gravitation
Details:-
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. The universal law of gravitation.
Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and depth.

• Gravitational potential energy; gravitational potential. Escape velocity, orbital velocity of a satellite. Geostationary satellites.

UNIT VII: Properties of Bulk Matter
Details:-
• Elastic behavior, Stress-strain relationship. Hooke’s law, Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear, modulus of rigidity, poisson’s ratio; elastic energy.

• Viscosity, Stokes’ law, terminal velocity, Reynold’s number, streamline and turbulent flow. Critical velocity, Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications.

• Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure, application of surface tension ideas to drops, bubbles and capillary rise.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

• Heat, temperature, thermal expansion; thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases. Anomalous expansion. Specific heat capacity: Cp, Cv- calorimetry; change of state – latent heat.

• Heat transfer- conduction and thermal conductivity, convection and radiation.
Qualitative ideas of Black Body Radiation, Wein’s displacement law, and Green
House effect.

• Newton’s law of cooling and Stefan’s law.

UNIT VIII: Thermodynamics
Details:-
• Thermal equilibrium and definition of temperature (zeroth law of Thermodynamics). Heat, work and internal energy. First law of thermodynamics. Isothermal and adiabatic processes.

• Second law of the thermodynamics: Reversible and irreversible processes. Heat engines and refrigerators.

UNIT IX: Behaviour of Perfect Gas and Kinetic Theory
Details:-
• Equation of state of a perfect gas, work done on compressing a gas.

• Kinetic theory of gases: Assumptions, concept of pressure. Kinetic energy and temperature; degrees of freedom, law of equipartition of energy (statement only) and application to specific heat capacities of gases; concept of mean free path.

UNIT X: Oscillations and Waves
Details:-
• Periodic motion-period, frequency, displacement as a function of time. Periodic functions. Simple harmonic motion(SHM) and its equation; phase; oscillations of a spring-restoring force and force constant; energy in SHM –Kinetic and potential energies; simple pendulum-derivation of expression for its time period; free, forced and damped oscillations (qualitative ideas only), resonance.

• Wave motion. Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of wave motion.
Displacement relation for a progressive wave. Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing waves in strings and organ pipes,
fundamental mode and harmonics. Beats. Doppler effect.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS OF CLASS XII SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Electrostatics
Details:-
• Electric charges and their conservation. Coulomb’s law-force between two point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and continuous charge distribution.

• Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines; electric dipole, electric field due to a dipole; torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.

• Electric flux, statement of Gauss’s theorem and its applications to find field due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside and outside)

• Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system of charges: equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges and of electric diploes in an electrostatic field.

• Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor.
Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates, energy stored in a capacitor, Van de Graaff generator.

UNIT II: Current Electricity
Details:-
• Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity and mobility, and their relation with electric current; Ohm’s law, electrical resistance, V-I characteristics (liner and non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity.

• Carbon resistors, colour code for carbon resistors; series and parallel combinations of resistors; temperature dependence of resistance.

• Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and in parallel.

• Kirchhoff’s laws and simple applications. Wheatstone bridge, metre bridge.

• Potentiometer-principle and applications to measure potential difference, and for comparing emf of two cells; measurement of internal resistance of a cell.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT III: Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism
Details:-
• Concept of magnetic field, Oersted’s experiment. Biot-Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop.

• Ampere’s law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire, straight and toroidal solenoids. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields. Cyclotron.

• Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. Force between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere. Torque experienced by a current loop in a magnetic field; moving coil galvanometer-its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter.

• Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron. Magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its axis and perpendicular to its axis. Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field; bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines; Earth’s magnetic field and magnetic elements.

• Para-, dia-and ferro-magnetic substances, with examples.

• Electromagnetic and factors affecting their strengths. Permanent magnets.

UNIT IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents
Details:-
• Electromagnetic induction; Faraday’s law, induced emf and current; Lenz’s Law, Eddy currents. Self and mutual inductance.

• Alternating currents, peak and rms value of alternating current/ voltage; reactance and impedance; LC oscillations (qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance; power in AC circuits, wattles current.

• AC generator and transformer.

UNIT V: Electromagnetic Waves
Details:-
• Need for displacement current.

• Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics (qualitative ideas only).
Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

• Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

UNIT VI: Optics
Details:-
• Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula. Refraction of light, total internal reflection and its applications optical fibres, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens-maker’s formula. Magnification, power
of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact combination of a lens and a mirror. Refraction and dispersion of light through a prism.

• Scattering of light- blue colour of the sky and reddish appearance of the sun at sunrise and sunset.

• Optical instruments: Human eye, image formation and accommodation, correction of eye defects (myopia and hypermetropia) using lenses.

• Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers.

• Wave optics: Wavefront and Huygens’ principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wavefronts.

• Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygens’ principle.

• Interference, Young’s double hole experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent sources and sustained interference of light.

• Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum.

• Resolving power of microscopes and astronomical telescopes. Polarisation, plane polarized light; Brewster’s law, uses of plane polarized light and Polaroids.

UNIT VII: Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
Details:-
• Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard’s observations; Einstein’s photoelectric equation- particle nature of light.

• Matter waves- wave nature of particles, de Broglie relation. Davisson-Germer experiment (experimental details should be omitted; only conclusion should be
explained).

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT VIII: Atoms and Nuclei
Details:-
• Alpha- particle scattering experiments; Rutherford’s model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen spectrum. Composition and size of nucleus, atomic masses, isotopes, isobars; isotones.

• Radioactivity- alpha, beta and gamma particles/ rays and their properties decay law. Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number, nuclear fission and fusion.

UNIT IX: Electronic Devices
Details:-
• Energy bands in solids (qualitative ideas only), conductors, insulators and semiconductors; semiconductor diode- I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as a rectifier; I-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell, and Zener diode; Zener diode as a voltage regulator. Junction transistor, transistor action, characteristics of a transistor; transistor as an amplifier (common emitter configuration) and oscillator. Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR).
Transistor as a switch .

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CHEMISTRY

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS OF CLASS XI SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Details:-
• General Introduction: Important and scope of chemistry.

• Laws of chemical combination, Dalton’s atomic theory: concept of elements, atoms and molecules.

• Atomic and molecular masses. Mole concept and molar mass; percentage composition and empirical and molecular formula; chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.

UNIT II: Structure of Atom
Details:-
• Atomic number, isotopes and isobars. Concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of matter and light, de Broglie’s relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbital, quantum numbers, shapes of s,p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals- Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principles and Hund’s
rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of half filled and completely filled orbitals.

UNIT III: Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties
Details:-
• Modern periodic law and long form of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements- atomic radii, ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valence.

UNIT IV: Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure
Details:-
• Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of covalent bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear
diatomic molecules (qualitative idea only). Hydrogen bond.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNITV: States of Matter: Gases and Liquids
Details:-
• Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws of elucidating the concept of the molecule,
Boyle’s law, Charle’s law, Gay Lussac’s law, Avogadro’s law, ideal behaviour of gases, empirical derivation of gas equation. Avogadro number, ideal gas equation. Kinetic energy and molecular speeds (elementary idea), deviation from ideal behaviour, liquefaction of gases, critical temperature.

• Liquid State- Vapour pressure, viscosity and surface tension (qualitative idea only, no mathematical derivations).

UNITVI : Thermodynamics
Details:-
• First law of thermodynamics-internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity and specific heat, measurement of U and H, Hess’s law of constant heat summation, enthalpy of : bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution and dilution.

• Introduction of entropy as state function, Second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs energy change for spontaneous and non-spontaneous process, criteria for equilibrium and spontaneity.

• Third law of thermodynamics- Brief introduction.

UNIT VII: Equilibrium
Details:-
• Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium- Le Chatelier’s principle; ionic equilibrium- ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization, ionization of polybasic acids, acid strength, concept of pH., Hydrolysis of salts (elementary idea)., buffer solutions, Henderson equation, solubility product, common ion effect (with illustrative examples).

UNIT VIII: Redox Reactions
Details:-
• Concept of oxidation and oxidation and reduction, redox reactions oxidation number, balancing redox reactions in terms of loss and gain of electron and
change in oxidation numbers.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT IX: Hydrogen
Details:-
• Occurrence, isotopes, preparation, properties and uses of hydrogen; hydrides- ionic, covalent and interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water; hydrogen peroxide-preparation, reactions, uses and structure;

UNIT X: s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline earth metals) Details:-
• Group I and group 2 elements:

• General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in the variation of properties (such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens; uses.

• Preparation and Properties of Some important Compounds:

• Sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogencarbonate, biological importance of sodium and potassium.

• Industrial use of lime and limestone, biological importance of Mg and Ca.

UNIT XI: Some p-Block Elements
Details:-
• General Introduction to p-Block Elements.

• Group 13 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of the group; Boron, some important compounds: borax, boric acids, boron hydrides. Aluminium: uses, reactions with acids and alkalies.

• General 14 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first element. Carbon, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties: uses of some important compounds: oxides.

• Important compounds of silicon and a few uses: silicon tetrachloride, silicones, silicates and zeolites, their uses.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT XII: Organic Chemistry- Some Basic Principles and Techniques
Details:-
• General introduction, methods of purification qualitative and quantitative analysis, classification and IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds.

• Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation.

• Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a covalent bond: free radials, carbocations, carbanions; electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of organic reactions.

UNIT XIII: Hydrocarbons
Details:-
• Alkanes- Nomenclature, isomerism, conformations (ethane only), physical properties, chemical reactions including free radical mechanism of halogenation, combustion and pyrolysis.

• Alkanes-Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical properties, methods of preparation: chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water, hydrogen halides (Markovnikov’s addition and
peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of electrophilic addition.

• Alkynes-Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of- hydrogen, halogens, hydrogen halides and water.

• Aromatic hydrocarbons- Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature; Benzene; resonance, aromaticity; chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution- Nitration sulphonation, halogenation, Friedel Craft’s alkylation and acylation; directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted benzene; carcinogenicity and toxicity.

UNIT XIV: Environmental Chemistry
Details:-
• Environmental pollution: Air, water and soil pollution, chemical reactions in atmosphere, smogs, major atmospheric pollutants; acid rain ozone and its reactions, effects of depletion of ozone layer, greenhouse effect and global warming-pollution due to industrial wastes; green chemistry as an alternative tool
for reducing pollution, strategy for control of environmental pollution.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS OF CLASS XII SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Solid State
Details:-
• Classification of solids based on different binding forces; molecular, ionic covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea), unit cell in two dimensional and three dimensional lattices, calculation of density of unit cell, packing in solids, packing efficiency, voids, number of atoms per unit cell in a cubic unit cell, point defects, electrical and magnetic properties, Band theory of metals, conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

UNIT II: Solutions
Details:-
• Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases in liquids, solid solutions, colligative properties- relative lowering of vapour pressure, Raoult’s law, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular masses using colligative properties abnormal molecular mass. Van Hoff factor.

UNIT III: Electrochemistry
Details:-
• Redox reactions, conductance in electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity variation of conductivity with concentration, kohlrausch’s Law, electrolysis and Laws of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell- electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells; lead accumulator, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell, fuel cells; corrosion.

UNIT IV: Chemical Kinetics
Details:-
• Rate of a reaction (average and instantaneous), factors affecting rates of reaction; concentration, temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction; rate law and specific rate constant, integrated rate equations and half life (only for zero and first order reactions); concept of collision theory ( elementary idea, no
mathematical treatment). Activation energy, Arrhenious equation.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT V: Surface Chemistry
Details:-
• Adsorption-physisorption and chemisorption; factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids, catalysis homogeneous and heterogeneous, activity and selectivity: enzyme catalysis; colloidal state: distinction between true solutions, colloids and suspensions; lyophillic, lyophobic multimolecular and macromolecular colloids; properties of colloids; Tyndall effect, Brownian movement, electrophoresis, coagulation; emulsions- types of emulsions.

UNIT VI: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
Details:-
• Principles and methods of extraction- concentration, oxidation, reduction electrolytic method and refining; occurrence and principles of extraction of aluminium, copper, zinc and iron.

UNIT VII: p- Block Elements
Details:-
• Group 15 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, oxidation states, trends in physical and chemical properties; preparation and properties of ammonia and nitric acid, oxides of nitrogen (structure only); Phosphorous- allotropic forms; compounds of phosphorous: preparation and properties of phosphine, halides (PCI3, PCI5) and oxoacids (elementary idea only).

• Group 16 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; dioxygen: preparation, properties and uses; classification of oxides; ozone. Sulphur – allotropic forms; compounds of sulphur: preparation, preparation, properties and uses of sulphur dioxide; sulphuric acid: industrial process of manufacture, properties and uses, oxoacids of sulphur (structures only).

• Group 17 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, oxidation states, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties; compounds of halogens: preparation, properties and uses of chlorine and hydrochloric acid, interhalogen compounds oxoacids of halogens (structures only).

• Group 18 elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, trends in physical and chemical properties, uses.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT VIII: d and f Block Elements
Details:-
• General introduction, electronic configuration, characteristics of transition metals, general trends in properties of the first row transition metals- metallic character, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation. Preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

• Lanthanoids- electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity, and lanthanoid contraction and its consequences.

• Actinoids: Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.

UNIT IX: Coordination Compounds
Details:-
• Coordination compounds: Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, isomerism (structural and stereo) bonding, Werner’s theory VBT,CFT; importance of coordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, biological systems).

UNIT X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Details:-
• Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C –X bond, physical and chemical properties, mechanism of substitution reactions. Optical rotation.

• Haloarenes: Nature of C-X bond, substitution reactions (directive influence of halogen for monosubstituted compounds only).

• Uses and environment effects of – dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT.

UNIT XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Details:-
• Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary alcohols only); identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration, uses with special reference to
methanol and ethanol.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

• Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.

• Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties uses.

UNIT XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Details:-
• Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties; and mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes; uses.

• Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties; uses.

UNIT XIII: Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen
Details:-
• Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses, identification of primary secondary and tertiary amines.

• Cyanides and Isocyanides- will be mentioned at relevant places.

• Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

UNIT XIV: Biomolecules
Details:-
• Carbohydrates- Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccharide (glucose and fructose), D.L. configuration, oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen): importance.

• Proteins- Elementary idea of – amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins; enzymes.

• Hormones- Elementary idea (excluding structure).

• Vitamins- Classification and function.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT XV: Polymers
Details:-
• Classification- Natural and synthetic, methods of polymerization (addition and condensation), copolymerization. Some important polymers: natural and synthetic like polyesters, bakelite; rubber, Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers.

UNIT XVI: Chemistry in Everyday Life
Details:-
• Chemicals in medicines- analgesics, tranquilizers, antiseptics, disinfectants, antimicrobials, antifertility drugs, antibiotics, antacids, antihistamines.
• Chemicals in food- preservatives, artificial sweetening agents, elementary idea of antioxidants.
• Cleansing agents- soaps and detergents, cleansing action.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

BIOLOGY

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS OF CLASS XI SYLLABUS UNIT I: Diversity in Living World
Details:

• What is living? ; Biodiversity; Need for classification; Three domains of life; Taxonomy & Systematics; Concept of species and taxonomical hierarchy; Binomial nomenclature; Tools for study of Taxonomy – Museums, Zoos, Herbaria, Botanical gardens.

• Five kingdom classification; salient features and classification of Monera; Protista and Fungi into major groups; Lichens; Viruses and Viroids.

• Salient features and classification of plants into major groups-Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (three to five salient and distinguishing features and at least two examples of each category); Angiosperms- classification up to class, characteristic features and examples).

• Salient features and classification of animals-nonchordate up to phyla level and chordate up to classes level (three to five salient features and at least two examples).

UNIT II: Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants

Details:
• Morphology and modifications; Tissues; Anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: Root, stem, leaf, inflorescence- cymose and recemose,
flower, fruit and seed (To be dealt along with the relevant practical of the
Practical Syllabus).

• Animal tissues; Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of an insect (cockroach). (Brief account only)

UNIT III: Cell Structure and Function

Details:

• Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life; Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell; Plant cell and animal cell; Cell envelope, cell membrane, cell wall; Cell organelles-structure and function; Endomembrane system-endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, vacuoles; mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids,

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

micro bodies; Cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella, centrioles (ultra structure and function); Nucleus-nuclear membrane, chromatin, nucleolus.

• Chemical constituents of living cells: Biomolecules-structure and function of proteins, carbodydrates, lipids, nucleic acids; Enzymes-types, properties, enzyme action.
• B Cell division: Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance.

UNIT IV: Plant Physiology

Details:-
• Transport in plants: Movement of water, gases and nutrients; Cell to cell transport-Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport; Plant – water relations
– Imbibition, water potential, osmosis, plasmolysis; Long distance transport of water – Absorption, apoplast, symplast, transpiration pull, root pressure and guttation; Transpiration-Opening and closing of stomata; Uptake and
translocation of mineral nutrients-Transport of food, phloem transport, Mass flow hypothesis; Diffusion of gases (brief mention).

• Mineral nutrition: Essential minerals, macro and micronutrients and their role; Deficiency symptoms; Mineral toxicity; Elementary idea of Hydroponics as a method to study mineral nutrition; Nitrogen metabolism-Nitrogen cycle, biological nitrogen fixation.

• Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis as a means of Autotrophic nutrition; Site of photosynthesis take place; pigments involved in Photosynthesis (Elementary idea); Photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis; Cyclic and non cyclic and photophosphorylation; Chemiosmotic hypothesis; Photorespiration C3 and C4 pathways; Factors affecting photosynthesis.

• Respiration: Exchange gases; Cellular respiration-glycolysis, fermentation (anaerobic), TCA cycle and electron transport system (aerobic); Energy relations- Number of ATP molecules generated; Amphibolic pathways; Respiratory quotient.

• Plant growth and development: Seed germination; Phases of Plant growth and plant growth rate; Conditions of growth; Differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation; Sequence of developmental process in a plant cell; Growth regulators-auxin,gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA; Seed dormancy; Vernalisation; Photoperiodism.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT IV: Human Physiology

Details:-
• Digestion and absorption; Alimentary canal and digestive glands; Role of digestive enzymes and gastrointestinal hormones; Peristalsis, digestion, absorption and assimilation of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; Caloric value of proteins, carbohydrates and fats; Egestion; Nutritional and digestive disorders – PEM, indigestion, constipation, vomiting, jaundice, diarrhea.
• Breathing and Respiration: Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; Mechanism of breathing and its regulation in humans-Exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration Respiratory volumes; Disorders related to respiration-Asthma, Emphysema, Occupational respiratory disorders.
• Body fluids and circulation: Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; Composition of lymph and its function; Human circulatory system-Structure of human heart and blood vessels; Cardiac cycle, cardiac output, ECG, Double circulation; Regulation of cardiac activity; Disorders of circulatory system- Hypertension, Coronary artery disease, Angina pectoris, Heart failure.
• Excretory products and their elimination: Modes of excretion- Ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; Human excretory system-structure and fuction; Urine formation, Osmoregulation; Regulation of kidney function-Renin-angiotensin, Atrial Natriuretic Factor, ADH and Diabetes insipidus; Role of other organs in excretion; Disorders; Uraemia, Renal failure, Renal calculi, Nephritis; Dialysis and artificial kidney.
• Locomotion and Movement: Types of movement- ciliary, fiagellar, muscular; Skeletal muscle- contractile proteins and muscle contraction; Skeletal system and its functions (To be dealt with the relevant practical of Practical syllabus); Joints; Disorders of muscular and skeletal system-Myasthenia gravis, Tetany, Muscular dystrophy, Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Gout.
• Neural control and coordination: Neuron and nerves; Nervous system in humans- central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and visceral nervous system; Generation and conduction of nerve impulse; Reflex action; Sense organs; Elementary structure and function of eye and ear.
• Chemical coordination and regulation: Endocrine glands and hormones; Human endocrine system-Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Pineal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Gonads; Mechanism of hormone action (Elementary Idea); Role of hormones as messengers and regulators, Hypo-and hyperactivity and related disorders (Common disorders e.g. Dwarfism, Acromegaly, Cretinism, goiter, exopthalmic goiter, diabetes, Addison’s disease).

(Imp: Diseases and disorders mentioned above to be dealt in brief.)

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

CONTENTS OF CLASS XII SYLLABUS

UNIT I: Reproduction

Details:-
• Reproduction in organisms: Reproduction, a characteristic feature of all organisms for continuation of species; Modes of reproduction – Asexual and sexual; Asexual reproduction; Modes-Binary fission, sporulation, budding, gemmule, fragmentation; vegetative propagation in plants.

• Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: Flower structure; Development of male and female gametophytes; Pollination-types, agencies and examples; Outbreeding devices; Pollen-Pistil interaction; Double fertilization; Post fertilization events- Development of endosperm and embryo, Development of seed and formation of fruit; Special modes-apomixis, parthenocarpy, polyembryony; Significance of
seed and fruit formation.

• Human Reproduction: Male and female reproductive systems; Microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary; Gametogenesis-spermatogenesis & oogenesis; Menstrual cycle; Fertilisation, embryo development upto blastocyst formation, implantation; Pregnancy and placenta formation (Elementary idea); Parturition (Elementary idea); Lactation (Elementary idea).

• Reproductive health: Need for reproductive health and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (STD); Birth control-Need and Methods, Contraception and Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP); Amniocentesis; Infertility and assisted reproductive technologies – IVF, ZIFT, GIFT (Elementary idea for general awareness).

UNIT II: Genetics and Evolution

Details:-
• Heredity and variation: Mendelian Inheritance; Deviations from Mendelism- Incomplete dominance, Co-dominance, Multiple alleles and Inheritance of blood groups, Pleiotropy; Elementary idea of polygenic inheritance; Chromosome theory of inheritance; Chromosomes and genes; Sex determination-In humans,
birds, honey bee; Linkage and crossing over; Sex linked inheritance-Haemophilia, Colour blindness; Mendelian disorders in humans-Thalassemia; Chromosomal disorders in humans; Down’s syndrome, Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

• Molecular basis of Inheritance: Search for genetic material and DNA as genetic material; Structure of DNA and RNA; DNA packaging; DNA replication; Central dogma; Transcription, genetic code, translation; Gene expression and regulation- Lac Operon; Genome and human genome project; DNA finger printing.

• Evolution: Origin of life; Biological evolution and evidences for biological evolution from Paleontology, comparative anatomy, embryology and molecular evidence); Darwin’s contribution, Modern Synthetic theory of Evolution; Mechanism of evolution-Variation (Mutation and Recombination) and Natural Selection with examples, types of natural selection; Gene flow and genetic drift; Hardy-Weinberg’s principle; Adaptive Radiation; Human evolution.

UNIT III: Biology and Human Welfare

Details:-
• Health and Disease; Pathogens; parasites causing human diseases (Malaria, Filariasis, Ascariasis. Typhoid, Pneumonia, common cold, amoebiasis, ring worm); Basic concepts of immunology-vaccines; Cancer, HIV and AIDS; Adolescence, drug and alcohol abuse.

• Improvement in food production; Plant breeding, tissue culture, single cell protein, Biofortification; Apiculture and Animal husbandry.

• Microbes in human welfare: In household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation and as biocontrol agents and biofertilizers.

UNIT IV: Biotechnology and Its Applications

Details:-
• Principles and process of Biotechnology: Genetic engineering (Recombinant
DNA technology).

• Application of Biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production, gene therapy; Genetically modified organisms-Bt crops; Transgenic Animals; Biosafety issues-Biopiracy and patents.

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Final Syllabus for NEET-UG

UNIT V: Ecology and environment

Details:-
• Organisms and environment: Habitat and niche; Population and ecological adaptations; Population interactions-mutualism, competition, predation, parasitism; Population attributes-growth, birth rate and death rate, age distribution.
• Ecosystem: Patterns, components; productivity and decomposition; Energy flow; Pyramids of number, biomass, energy; Nutrient cycling (carbon and phosphorous); Ecological succession; Ecological Services-Carbon fixation, pollination, oxygen release.

• Biodiversity and its conservation: Concept of Biodiversity; Patterns of Biodiversity; Importance of Biodiversity; Loss of Biodiversity; Biodiversity conservation; Hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, biosphere reserves, National parks and sanctuaries.

• Environmental issues: Air pollution and its control; Water pollution and its control; Agrochemicals and their effects; Solid waste management; Radioactive waste management; Greenhouse effect and global warning; Ozone depletion; Deforestation; Any three case studies as success stories addressing environmental
issues.

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Over the past few years collaborative has become more popular as school districts search for ways to best serve the needs of their English language learners. What is collaborative teaching? Does it work? We will try to explain how collaborative teaching works for English language learners in class room situation.

In a collaborative setting, the ESL teacher “pushes into” the general education classroom to collaborate with the teacher. Collaborative teaching involves two credentialed professionals who are partners in the instruction of the lesson. One professional is usually a classroom or subject area teacher and the other is a certified ESL teacher. Ideally, co-teachers have equal responsibilities for planning instruction. Together the two teachers are lowering the student-teacher ratio and providing differentiated instruction in a manner that is not possible for one teacher.

Collaborative teachers are using the same physical space. Students are not pulled out of the classroom for one of the teachers to instruct. Although small heterogeneous groups may occasionally be pulled aside for reinforcement, I think that English language learners should not be isolated from mainstream students in the back of the classroom. In elementary schools, ESL teachers may come into the classroom for one instructional period each day.

Over the past few years collaborative teaching has become more popular as school districts search for ways to best serve the needs of their English language learners. If you ask ESL teachers who have tried co-teaching, you will hear both negative and positive responses.

Here is an example for a poor collaborative teaching situation. Paulo is a “push-in ESL teacher in a large school district in N.J. He teams with five different teachers each school day. He also teaches two classes of beginners in a pullout setting. Because of his work load, he is unable to plan lessons with his co-teachers. When Paulo goes into some classrooms, the teacher turns the students over to him and uses the time as a prep period. In others, he is helping a few ESL students at the back of the room while the classroom teacher works with the rest of the students. Usually, he serves as a classroom aide, roving around the room to help students who do not understand the instruction. He is not necessarily scheduled into a classroom when the students need him most. In one class, he comes in when kids are eating snack.

This is collaborative teaching at its worse. ESL professionals are not classroom aides. They should not be relegated to the back of the room with English language learners. What is the point of “push-in” ESL if students are kept on the fringes of the “real” instruction? Both teachers have a contribution to make. The classroom teacher contributes knowledge of the curriculum and of all the students in the class while the ESL teacher brings information about teaching strategies, second language acquisition and diverse cultures.

It is my experience that ESL teachers who are pushing into general education classrooms are generally more satisfied if they:

* have input into their schedule and whom they will be teaching with.
* co-teach specific subject and are in the classroom each time the subject is taught.
* have time to plan with the co-teacher
* enjoy equal status with the co-teacher.
* can discuss and decide their role and responsibilities in advance.

Collaborative teaching using this technique in Secondary Classes:

* Teach and write. One teacher teaches the lesson while the other records the important points on an overhead or chalkboard. ELLs benefit from this because information is being presented to them through different modalities. Station teaching. Students rotate through predetermined stations or activities. Each teachers works with all the students as they come through the station.
* Parallel teaching. The class is divided into two groups and each teacher delivers the content information to their group simultaneously. This allows teachers with distinctly different styles to work together.
* Alternative teaching. Teachers divide responsibility for planning. The majority of the students work in a large group setting but some students are pulled into to a smaller group for pre-teaching or other types of individualized instruction. The same students should not be pulled into the small group each time.
* Team Teaching. Teachers co-teach each lesson. This requires a great deal of planning and cooperation. Both teachers are responsible for all of the students.
* Lead and support. The lead teacher instructs the class while the supporting teacher provides assistance as she roams around the room. The supporting teacher may elaborate the important points or retell parts of the lesson. Ideally, classroom and ESL teachers should alternate roles so that one is not always the lead teacher. This type of instruction can be misused and the ESL teacher may find herself in a subordinate role.

There are many obvious benefits to co-teaching for students. ESL students have both academic and social benefits. They are exposed to the mainstream content but have the support of a second teacher. They are not pulled out of the class and learn with their classmates.

ESL teachers, however, cite many concerns. They do not want to lose ownership of their students be relegated to the status of an aide. They feel that collaboration is a lot of additional work especially if they are co-teaching with several different teachers. ESL teachers are concerned about beginners, who they feel do not really benefit from learning in the large group setting.

I think the benefits of collaboration outweigh the drawbacks. When teachers share the responsibility of instruction, lessons are more creative because two people are planning them. It’s nice to have another adult in the room to be able to provide a range of support to students and to share those “ah-ha” moments. Lower teacher – student ratio
Classroom of diverse learners
Teachers can respond effectively to varied needs of students
Another professional can provide different viewpoints and more ideas for instruction.
Teachers can be motivational for one another.
Co-teaching can positively affect the general educator’s instructional behavior

MBA is an abbreviation that means Master in Business Administration. The term would imply that the able candidates of the MBA course would learn to manage and administer the functions of any organization. Suit up for any MBA program and you will be educated in learning leadership and management skills. As we know very well, the task of corporate management involves management of different specific areas of the company. So, the candidates would be trained in learning to administer these different areas well. So, this all-round management would help in getting each candidate a good job in the corporate field.
There are mainly three types of MBA programs. Each program or MBA educational course would train and educate the students in managing the different fields of the business management.
One of the main fields is that of Finance. The company would require some good financial managers to control the expenses and earnings. So, the candidates of the MBA in Finance course would be trained for this task. They would be taught about the complex and technical aspects of the financial analysis. So, the students of this course will get jobs like accountants and financial analysts.
The marketing department would also be important to manage well. The firm would need to market and advertise their products and services. They would need people for marketing their products to the target audience. So, those, who want to enter the marketing field, can go in for a MBA in marketing course.
Another important aspect of organizational management is that of human resources. The firm would like to prize their employees. for Indian there is available of job at Sarkari Naukri (Government job). A proper understanding of the employees’ problems and requirements would increase a firm’s productivity. So, the graduates of HR MBA course would fit in well as people, who will have to deal and manage the employees of the firms.

The key features of participatory research are:

People are the subjects of research: the dichotomy between subject and object is broken

People themselves collect the data and then process and analyze the information using methods easily understood by them

The knowledge generated is used to promote actions for change or to improve existing local actions

The knowledge belongs to the people and they are the primary beneficiaries of the knowledge creation

Research and action are inseparable – they represent a unity

research is a praxis rhythm of action-reflection where knowledge creation supports action

People function as organic intellectuals

there is an built-in mechanism to ensure authenticity and genuineness of the information that is generated because people themselves use the information for life improvement.

Such participatory research may not get written up. Oral and visual methods characterize this process of knowledge creation. If people can be stimulated to write them up in their own idiom then such research could be an important source of a people’s literature, and reading materials for a wider public.

Some of the material could be translated into pictures, cartoons, graphics, posters and slogans which may be a more effective method of communication. Such documentation may be carried out by community activists who are well placed to articulate the community’s way of thinking.

The key processes of Participatory Research

The promotion of participatory research is basically an exercise in stimulating the people to:

Collect information reflect and analyse it

Use the results as a knowledge base for life improvement, and

whenever possible, to document the results for wider dissemination ie for the creation of a people’s literature.

How students prepare themselves in English for a competition Examinations. Reading comprehension is defined as the level of understanding of writing. It is the capacity for understanding fully the act or action of grasping with the intellect. Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. If word recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to comprehend what is read. A comprehension passage, therefore, is set for testing the reader’s ability to receive or take in the sense of a text by scanning, understanding the meaning of written or printed matter, learning from what one has seen or found in writing or printing.
Merely identifying words on a page does not make someone a successful reader. Reading comprehension tests the reader’s ability to comprehend the content as well as the organization, style and theme of the passage. There is not a definitive set of strategies, but common ones include summarizing what you have read, monitoring your reading to make sure it is still making sense, and analyzing the structure of the text.
Competent Requirements and steps for complete comprehension
Vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension instruction based on reading strategies and practices are critical to effective reading comprehension.
One strategy for reading comprehension is the technique called SQ3R. This stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review.
Read the passage once as rapidly as possible to determine the main idea before you look at the questions. Don’t worry about words you don’t know at this stage.
Underline the words that you do not understand to facilitate a complete understanding of the passage.
This will enable you to solve the vocabulary questions quicker.
Look through questions carefully. You are advised to keep the order in which the questions appear in the test paper. Read intensively the portion relevant to the answers.
Concentrate on the vocabulary items and puzzle out the meanings of any words you do not know from the context.
Before finalizing the answer, check the questions again to be sure you have really understood them.
Different types of questions you can expect. Some questions are based on what is said in a single sentence. The complex types of questions are based on what is said or implied in more than one position in the given passage. A question may be framed on the passage as a whole. For example, “what message does the write like to convey through the passage’’? Or “what should be the title of the passage”?
Skimming for the main ideas in English
You may not find any clue at a particular part or position in the passage. For answering this type of question you are to depend wholly on your comprehensive capacity.
Need to See the Following points:
Determine what clue it gives you as to what the passage is all about. Watch the key words like ‘clause’ ‘results’ ‘effects’ etc. do not overlook signal word such as those suggesting controversy, which indicate that the author is planning to present both sides of an argument.
Concentrate on the main ideas and ignore the details:
To suggest a title of the passage you should keep in mind the given points. It should be simple, clear and meaningful and it should be comprehensive.
How to approach the questions for English Subject:
Look out for words that show cause, effect and purpose in order to arrive at the answer.
If any question starts with ‘why’- you are to look for reasons, explanation and evidence.
Cause words signal the cause or reason for an even an action.
Effect words signal the result of an event on an action.
Purpose words indicate the reason for an event or action.
In the ‘inference’ question you are required to make a deduction or draw a conclusion based on the information given in a passage. Since there used to be no straight forward questions, it is essential therefore, to read between lines for clues or hidden meaning. You can draw an inference only after reading the entire passage.
Sometimes you are required to explain a word/phrase in your own words or substitute a word/phrase without altering its meaning. Even sometimes you are asked to give the antonym of a given word. To do so it is essential to understand the word/phrase in its context.
How to prepare for comprehension for English:
Several theories of vocabulary instruction exist, namely, one focused on intensive instruction of a high value words, one focused on broad instruction of many useful words, and a third focused on strategies for learning new words.
Learn to predict, summarize, clarify and ask questions for a passage. This technique has positive outcomes. The use of strategies like summarizing after each paragraph have come to be seen as effective strategies for building one’s comprehension.
You will develop stronger reading comprehension skills on your own if some body gives you explicit mental tools or unpacking text.
There are a wide range of reading strategies suggested by reading programs and educators. They identify positive effects only for a subset, particularly summarizing, asking questions, answering questions, comprehension monitoring, graphic organizer, and cooperative learning. They also emphasize that a combination of strategies, as used in reciprocal teaching, can be effective.
Today, most reading comprehension programs teach students explicit reading strategies using teacher direct instruction with additional student practice.
Comprehension through discussion involves lessons that are “instructional conservations’’ that create higher-level thinking opportunities for students. The purpose of the discussions are to promote critical and aesthetics thinking about text and encourage full classroom involvement.
To help students comprehend and learn from a specific reading material, they can access their prior knowledge on subject to help them relate to the subject that they are learning at the moment.
Making connection is when a student can relate a passage to an experience, another book, or other facts about the world. Making connections will help students understand what the author’s purpose is and what the story is about. You can use connections with any fiction or non-fiction text that you read.
Questioning is another strategy that will greatly benefit a student. All our knowledge results from questions, which is another way of saying that question asking is our most important intellectual tool. There are several types of questions that one should focus on: remembering, testing, understanding, application or solving, invite synthesis or creating and evaluation and judging.
Visualization is when students can create a picture or movie in their mind while reading text. Use terms like “mental image” and asking sensory questions will help students become better visualizes. Another way of looking at visualization is to think about bringing words of life.
Evaluation is about making judgments on what you read and then explaining why you make those judgments. Some activities to help with evaluating can be as easy as having a small group book talk or having students rate a book. Evaluating non-fiction texts can be done by using a criteria checklist to help students rate a text.
Synthesis is putting the pieces together to see them in a new way. Students will take what they already know about a subject along with their reflections from a book to create their own interpretation and ideas about a certain text. Lastly it is true that students need to be most careful.