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Human security is an emerging paradigm for understanding global vulnerabilities whose proponents challenge the traditional notion of national security by arguing that the proper referent for security should be the individual rather than the state. Human security holds that a people-centered view of security is necessary for national, regional and global stability. The concept emerged from a post-Cold War, multi-disciplinary understanding of security involving a number of research fields, including development studies, international relations, strategic studies, and human rights. The United Nations Development Programmer’s 1994 Human Development Report is considered a milestone publication in the field of human security, with its argument that insuring “freedom from want” and “freedom from fear” for all persons is the best path to tackle the problem of global insecurity. Frequently referred to in a wide variety of global policy discussions and scholarly journals,
Critics of the concept argue that its vagueness undermines its effectiveness;[4] that it has become little more than a vehicle for activists wishing to promote certain causes; and that it does not help the research community understand what security means or help decision makers to formulate good policies.
Human security focuses on the protection of individuals, rather than defending the physical and political integrity of states from external military threats – the traditional goal of national security. Ideally, national security and human security should be mutually reinforcing, but in the last 100 years far more people have died as a direct or indirect consequence of the actions of their own governments or rebel forces in civil wars than have been killed by invading foreign armies. Acting in the name of national security, governments can pose profound threats to human security. The application of human security is highly relevant within the area of humanitarian intervention, as it focuses on addressing the deep rooted and multi-factorial problems inherent in humanitarian crises, and offers more long term resolutions. In general, the term humanitarian intervention generally applies to when a state uses force against another state in order to alleviate suffering in the latter state (See, humanitarian intervention).
Under the traditional security paradigm humanitarian intervention is contentious. As discussed above, the traditional security paradigm places emphasis on the notion of states. Hence, the principles of state sovereignty and non-intervention that are paramount in the traditional security paradigm make it difficult to justify the intervention of other states in internal disputes. Through the development of clear principles based on the human security concept, there has been a step forward in the development of clear rules of when humanitarian intervention can occur and the obligations of states that intervene in the internal disputes of a state.
These principles on humanitarian intervention are the product of a debate pushed by United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan. He posed a challenge to the international community to find a new approach to humanitarian intervention that responded to its inherent problems.[29] In 2001, the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) produced the “The Responsibility to protect”, a comprehensive report detailing how the “right of humanitarian intervention” could be exercised. It was considered a triumph for the human security approach as it emphasized and gathered much needed attention to some of its main principles:

The modern world has experienced broadly speaking, two kind of revolutions. One type of revolutions is those which bring considerable social and political changes in an existing order. Political and social revolutions like the French and the Russian are example of this. Another type of revolutions is those which had a greater impact on the field of knowledge and social communication. One of the central transformations of the modern era has concerned the organization of the ways in which knowledge is transmitted. At the same time peoples capacities to receive this knowledge has also been shaped. In the 17^th to 18^th century certain major changes began to take place in educational practice and ideology in this period. Latin has come up as the medium of construction. This heralded a move towards the identification of the kind of the education one received with the cultural and political identity one bore. The eighteenth century enlightenment produces different schools of thought around the question of education. One hand the Italian philosopher Giambattistavico stressed the role of imagination in the creation of human personality. Some German ideologies regard that a severely regimented education for children in necessary. In the late eighteen century, elementary education spread in absolute terms. Education was a major concern in many European countries. With increasing state control over education was the process of nationalization. Major structural changes in the economy and society underpinned the enormous expansion of education in the nineteenth century. With growth of industrialization the spread of elementary education to the proletariat became a concern of state and public. The first half of the 19^th century saw significant growth in pedagogical thought reformers like john heinrich pestalozzi at the beginning of this period propounded the idea that the innate character of the child, rather than external characters or structures of arts and sciences should be the basis of a comprehensive intellectual, moral and physical educational programmed. Over the course of the 19^th century, national schooling systems came to be fully articulated in many countries. Germany witnessed the fastest development of the structures of national education in this time. Compulsory school attendance was established by the second half of the 18^th century and in 1794 a law declaring state supremacy over education was passed. In France the universal right to education was proclaimed as a revolutionary principle in 1791. England followed a slightly different trajectory. In 1796 society for bettering the conditions of the poor, was set up in 1760. In 1880 parliament passed an elementary education act. In India in the early nineteenth century due to initiatives taken by social reformers like Ram Mohan Roy, New education policies set up. In the 20^th century education retained and intensified its role as a catalyst of social change. Two world wars also had great influences on education. Industrial and scientific development in the west called into being new kinds of training in new kind of technical knowledge. Theories of education in the twentieth century have taken many forms, increasingly informed by reliance on the findings and methods of other disciplines. Revolution in the field of printing and publishing brought  a new era. Johannes Gutenberg invented the first modern press. This new type of printing is different from block printing. Gradually the art of printing spread across the world. The industrialization of printing in the 19^th century radically reduced publishing costs. In the 20^th century book publishing became a large industry. Prior to the 18^th century, the book in Europe had generally been seen as form of social discipline. In the 20^th century readership expanded further. The emergence of news, as the given quantity of information that large members of people have regular access to through determinate media, is perhaps the most important dimension of the knowledge revolution in modern times. And news papers stood, for many generations in the center of this momentous change. Till the turn of the 19^th century and the advent of industrial revolution news coverage was sporadic over the course of the 20^th century. They were gradually supplanted as the most advanced disseminators of knowledge and information by what we call the audio visual media, radio and television. The first known radio programmer was broadcast in Massachusetts in the U.S.A on Christmas Eve. Politicians soon realized the enormous potential of radio to shape public opinion and deployed this in qualitatively new kinds of political campaigns. The last of the major revolutions in the dissemination of knowledge and social communication up till the present day is the internet. Since the 1970s and 1980s the internet has undergone many changes. Still, the internet remains, in many ways, the touch stone in knowledge sharing and dissemination.

After the Second World War the spirit of rivalry was further strengthened with the chief victors getting into two different fronts. The first and the seconds’ world wars were fought due to imperialistic attitudes of some western countries. But the cold war is ideologically different from the first and the Second World War. The division of Europe into two antagonistic spheres became evident. The main cause of the cold war was the ideological conflict between the U.S.S.R and the U.S. The cold war s origin can be traced back to Russian revolution in 1917. Communism established itself a militant faith. It believed to bring world revolution by the total extinction of the non believers. By exerting internal and external pressures the desired goals were aimed to be achieved. The beliefs and ideas of communism were strictly opposed by America. On the other hand soviet and Chinese communist leaders defined bourgeoisie capitalism as an anti progressive force. It was attributed with the features like oppressive and imperialistic attitude. But they were doomed to be buried under socialism. The first and the second world were inspired by imperialistic interest. Rise of extremist power was also prepared the stage for the Second World War, besides totalitarism surfaced to varying degrees in the first half of the 19^th century. As a result individual liberty was sacrificed on the name of the state. Large scale unemployment and economic distress considerably increased the fear of enemies both internally and externally. Germany’s Nazi regime, Italy’s fascism regime and Japan’s modernization drive also played a vital role. Mutual distrust and failure of building an anti fascist alliance along with the non existence of a strong international body to co-ordinate among international powers also hailed it. The first world was mainly characterized by expansion plans by military and naval commands of different countries. Several mobilization plans and a lightening of the hostile coalitions built a momentum for war over riding arguments for peace developing from trade, industry and good sense created an international crisis. The Great War had claimed t5he lives of no less than 15^th million people. Its development took place due to high ambitions, aspirations and jealousy which centered around countries like Germany, Britain, Russia, France, Belgium etc. But the Second World War was vaster in its impact. The cold war in comparison is an era of conflict which has witnessed no wide scale, direct conflicts. Rather the war was fought on diplomatic terms. In 1945 the US was a supreme power and it was evident in its economy that accounted for about 50 percent of the total world GNP. In the Second World War the U.S.S.R had lost 20 million men in war casualties and approximately the same number in related events. But still a large portion of the eastern and the central Europe into the centre of the Germany and also the Balkans were occupied by U.S.S.R. Germany was divided into two war fronts centering which tensions prevailed between U.S.S.R on one hand and united front of the French ,British and the Americans. The prime foreign policy objective of the US was containment of communism. The country took a number of effective measures to oppose communism. All Latin American countries committed themselves to join defense against internal and external communist subversion in Rio treaty of 1947. Attempts were being made to form a united front of non-communist European countries. In 1949 north Atlantic treaty organization was formed. Its main objective was to provide defense to the west European countries. Turkey and FRG joined it later. On the other central and eastern European countries were brought together in the Warsaw pact time under the leadership of the Soviet Union. Confrontation between two military alliances started a new arms race. The fear of nuclear warfare loomed over the whole world. The cold war came to Asia first when china proclaimed itself as the peoples of china in October 1949.china saw US as an adversary of its interest. The most dangerous crisis of the world war took place in October 1962 over the issue of soviet missiles placed in the Caribbean island of Cuba.

Globalization in 19^th century is a common essence of countries of the world. Global efforts for peace need to be genuinely united and so. Such unity is of the very essence, especially in this field of bringing peace to prevail. Those that obstruct this vital task are not friends of the world’s human fraternity in various societies. For, they are enemies of human, welfare. Human integrity and honesty demand that our efforts be wholehearted and pursued with dedication. Making the best of the bad bargain, would be a compromising of our ideal that should not be compromised in the interest of present humanity as well as the coming generations and in the near future. If we compromise we shall stand condemned by history that is yet to be and so long in future. In this regard, the current situation of the contemporary world is very peculiar and rendered complex by adverse human behavior. Let me explain, in this very recent past our world had to experience the period of continued uncertainty and insecurity, constant tension and a collective fear psychosis of a nuclear annihilation of the human race and the earth planet due to the confrontation between the two super-powers. An entire generation lived in a mood of despair of survival and with no hope of a future. The total human global family lived under the threat of a sudden death and destruction from the skies. The nightmare of Hiroshima and Nagasaki plagued the sleep of millions. Now, however, all this has gradually changed. Thanks to God, Divine intervention brought about a thawing of the cold war situation. The super-powers have decided to end their mutual distrust and hostility and begin to confer and consider sane strains and willing renunciation of nuclear warfare. What has followed is known to you all. All this is positive. It is in the desirable direction. But at this juncture we are now presented with a new threat. This 6^th international meeting of peace has seriously and earnestly recognizes this and formulates steps to contend with and defuse this new emerging danger on the horizon of out present times. What is this threat? it is that several other countries are making feverish efforts to obtain the necessary knowledge and to prepare a nuclear device. That self-same dangerous and destructive force and capability, which the super-powers are preparing to gradually, renounce, recognizing it as a menace to the safety and welfare of planetary humanity is now being zealously developed by several other countries in a bid to surpass their neighbors in their military might. Protest from the people affected in different countries, more so in Russia and other former soviet republics in central Asia and Eastern Europe and in South America as late as September and October 2004, indicate that the US’s agenda of globalization is increasingly meeting with resistance from a wider section of people. Globalization has negative effects as well and this has been conceded by the World Bank. The bank, an exponent of globalization had acknowledged that billions of people have been left behind owing to widening inequalities. It has given rise to, but in its own document, globalization, growth and poverty, the World Bank would still insist more of it because it has convinced itself that, globalization is the key to social justice. the growth has come not with a general improvement in social justice but with costs in terms of internal democracy, human right, and equality.

National voters day is a new coinage of the election commission of India on the occasion of its diamond jubilee celebration that end on 25^th January 2011. This day for the first time will be observed all over the country on January 25, 2011. This is, indeed, a very pragmatic step taken by the election commission. Importance of the day:- it has been observed that voters participation in voting during general elections, namely, parliamentary and assembly elections, has enormously decreased. In some states a little less than 50% voters do not come to caste their voters. The trend is more conspicuous among the young voters. This is not a good sign for the health of any democracy. In fact, the idols of democracy become weak when a large portion of the voters keeps aloof from voting. In this perspective the observance of voters Day is, indeed, very significant. Aims and objectives of the day: – The observance of the voter’s day has the following aims and objectives.

(i) Identification of cent percent eligible voters of the country and provides then with Epic.

(ii) Inspiring the young generation of the country to take more active part in democracy and its institutions

(iii) Rousing the feeling of pride, honour and glory in the mind of the young generation for being citizens of a vast democracy like that of India.

(iv) Enlightenment of the voters about their rights and duties.

(v) Encouraging the voters to caste their votes.

(vi) Enrichment of the democracy systems of India.

(vii) To ensure the participation of the maximum numbers of voters in general elections.

(viii) To strengthen democracy.

How to observe the day:-certain programmes may in each state at observe the day. The following programmes should be taken up:-

(i) According warm reception to fresh voters of each constituency.

(ii) Giving voters badge to all the fresh voters.

(iii) Reading out pledges to them.

(iv) Handing over electoral photo identity cards to them.

(v) Cultural activities.

(vi) Holding quiz competitions, essay competitions etc. involving students of schools, college and universities.

(vii) Speech of leaders and resource persons.

Role of state election commission: – to achieve the aims of this day means to enrich Indian democracy. So, the state election commission in each state should celebrate the day with right earnestness involving the youths in large number. It should seek the active participation of all recognized political parties, education institution, clubs and NGO’s in the programmes of the day and encourage innovative steps with awards.

Conclusion;- all the conscious and enlightened citizens of the country have a significant role to play in the great national task of strengthening Indian democracy and its set-up. The voters day beings a golden opportunity to them for rendering fruitful service to the country by organizing, encouraging and rejuvenating the young generation for political and democratic activities of the country so that its noble institutions may be nourished and more effective.so voter day is very much important for every individual who is living in any country and they have to obey that duty as fundamental duty in every democracy.

Introduction: – election commission is an autonomous body. it was established in January 25, 1950 until October 1989,it had only on chief election commissioner and two other election commissioner. it is a permanent constitutional body. For the success of democracy it is indispensable. It is often called the fourth pillars of Indian democracy

FUNCTION OF THE COMMISION: – the election commission conducts election to the parliament, state legislature and to the offices of the president and the vice president of India. Besides it has a lot of other function. Some of them are as follows:

i) Demarcation of parliamentary and assembly constitutions

ii) Recognition political parties and allotment of symbols.

iii) Preparation of electoral roll

iv) Scrutiny of nomination papers of the contesting candidates

v) Scrutiny of election expenses of the contesting candidates

vi) Deciding model code of conduct for contesting candidates and political parties.

Vii) Deciding election schedules for conduct of election.

Viii) Disqualifies candidates stopping or canceling election in a particular polling both or station on the basic of allegations

There are many such actions that the election commission has to perform to insure free & fair election. it has to work in accordance with the representation of the people act-1950 and the representation of people act-1951.the former deals with the preparation and revision of electoral rolls and the latter deals in details with all aspects of conduct of elections and post election disputes

Election machineries functioning at different levels:-in New Delhi there is the separate secretarial of the election commission. It has about 300 officials. It has different units to deal with the election and affairs of different zones. At the state level there is a chief electoral officer. He supervises the election work under the supervision, direction and control of the election commission. In new Delhi besides, at the district and constituency levels there are district electoral officers(DM’s),electoral registration officers(SDM’s)& returning officers(DM’s,SDM’s,BDO’s).these officers are assisted by a large number of functionaries employed by the commission of deputation.

Free and fair election:-It is the duty of the election commission to ensure free & fair

Election. The meaning of democracy becomes futile when the common people cannot exercise their franchising power freely and spontaneously. So, the constitution of India has instituted this commission.

Political criminalization & vandalism:-India is still backward in respect of the spread of education and political consciousness among people. a vast portion of the population is still now ignorant and illiterate. So, the politics in the country is not free from malice’s .to speak the truth, political vandalism has now raised a challenge to the free& fair election in the country.

The rule of election commission:-the election commission of India also has taken up now initiatives to face the challenges & trends to democracy. it has introduced a lot of new measures to curb vandalism & ensure fair election. Some of them are as follows:

i) Introduction of electoral photo identity card. (EPIC)

ii) Introduction electronic voting machines, video-graphs etc.

iii) Imposition of laws to restrict rampant use of money.

Iv) Mobilization of election staff such as presiding officers, guards, policemen etc ,from near by states.

v) Engagement of observers and many other steps the commissions deems to be appropriate.

Conclusion;-it is true that the election commission if India works independently and adopts measures as far as practicable to ensure free & fair election. it has achieved a lot of success also as in the last Bihar assembly election. election commission of India is applauded by the prime minister of India in his inaugural address during the diamond jubilee celebration of the ECI in jan25, 2010 in his own words,” there improvements have contributed not only to the speedy conduct of election but also to enhancing the transparency & credibility of the whole electoral process” but the independence and neutralist of the commission in often questioned. It is the central government that gives appointment to the chief election commissioner. The president of India appoints the commissioner as per the choice and recommendation of the prime minister. This very process of the appointment of the commissioner is a proof to the allegation that the chief election commissioner may have some witness towards his appointer. This is why we could not feel the existence of the election commission of India till the tenure of T.N Seshan into brought about a sea-change.

Theory of Surplus Value

Following Adam Smith, Marx distinguished in a commodity, two aspects: they have a use-value and an exchange value. A commodity is an article, which can satisfy one or the other human need, is a use value. But a commodity is not just a useful article, which is to be produced and sold in the market, but to be exchanged with other commodities. How to measure the exchange value of commodities which have different use-values? What do wheat and linen have in common? One is produced by a peasant, other by a weaver.

They are the products of different types of useful labor. What they have in common is that they are both products of human labor in general, what Marx calls “abstract human labor”. On both products a certain amount of human labor has been spent.

That determines their exchange-value. The exchange-value or simply the value, as distinguished from the use-value, consists of the abstract labor incorporated in the commodity. The measure is not the time which the individual laborer may have spent which may be above or below average, but the average time needed on a given level of productivity, what Marx calls the “socially necessary labor-time”.

Capitalist production becomes possible when along with other commodities labor-power can be bought as a commodity. As any other commodity labor power has a use-value for the buyer and an exchange-value for the seller. For the buyer, (the capitalist), it has the use-value that it can work (produce). He uses, he consumes it for this purpose and pays the price — strange enough only afterwards – in the form of wages. For the worker his labor power has only an exchange value. He cannot use it for his own purposes, because he has no means of production. But he can sell it in order to make a living. The exchange value is determined as in the case of every other commodity by the labor-time necessary for its production or reproduction; that means, in this case by the cast of the “means of subsistence” needed to maintain the worker and his children, the future workers. The level of subsistence and of essential needs varies from situation to situation according to the level of development and other factors.

Emergence of Classes

When humanity first developed fire, it took thousands of years to complete the process — being able to turn heat back into motion. The same kind of process can be seen in the development of classes. When humans began to organize themselves in accordance with their relations of production (the division of labor), classes in society formed based on the different positions and roles humans found and created themselves in. What once was a society with little or no class structure, i.e. tribal or nomadic society, became a society that split and divided itself into a diversity of classes fulfilling a broad range of productive roles.

The motion of nature, dialectics, applies in class development as it applies in all things. As the productive forces of humans increased, and class distinctions deepened and divided further, soon the advancement of the productive forces reached such heights that certain classes were no longer necessary. The small craftsperson and shop owner were pushed out of existence by the advancement of modern industries that could produce a much greater quantity at much lower cost.

Karl Marx and Fredrick Engel’s explained the processes of change brought forth by Industrial revolution just beginning to unfold in a particular direction:

“Modern Industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist. Masses of laborers, crowded into the factory, are organized like soldiers. As privates of the industrial army, they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers and sergeants. Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class, and of the bourgeois state; they are daily and hourly enslaved by the machine, by the over-looker, and, above all, in the individual bourgeois manufacturer himself. The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim, the more petty, the more hateful and the more embittering it is”.

What is modern society mean? Western industrialization rapidly became the model for the whole world, and western modernity an example to be followed by all nations. Colonies or clients of western powers were developed along these lines before they attained independence. Apparently the only viable polity in the modern world was industrial society, and only industrial societies could be active global agents. Thus japans humiliated by the west mid-19^th century, industrialized and became one of the most powerful societies in the world. Japan’s experience confirmed that there were several routes to modernity. Britain, Western Europe and the USA had industrialized on the basis of individual entrepreneurship and the free market economy. In Germany and Japan, the state and political elites played a major role, in organizing and planning development, and restricting foreign access to home markets in the interests of native industry. Following the Russian revolution of 1917, there came the authoritarian model of modernization under the one party state. Many developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America industrialized according to economic plans drawn by the political elites and imposed upon their populations. Independent India, instituted formal liberal democracy, but its industrialization was guided by the Indian national congress, identified with the struggle for independence. There were also the African socialisms of Kwame Nkrumah’s Ghana and Julius Nyerers Tanzania, the Chinese socialism of mao Zedong, the Cuban socialism of Fidel Castro, and the Yagoslave socialism of Josip Broz Tito. All these became models of development to certain third world societies. In japan, the Soviet Union and china the state supervised industrialization, made major decisions about investment, transport, communications, and education. Mass communications became agencies of mass socialization. Industrialization has taken place within a context of world industrialization, in a world system of states of unequal power. Towards the end of the 20^th century the ideological divisions between west and east, became obsolete with the collapse of communist regimes in the USSR and Eastern Europe. There are core countries that include the united state and Japan; semi-peripheral counties include Brazil, eastern European states and china, Africa and Asia. Wallerstein’s model recognizes the internationalization of the industrial economy. Nation-states, whether capitalist or communist, are becoming increasingly subordinate to world economic developments. Thus the politics of energy procurement are global in nature just as much as military strategy. Capital investment and growth are global issues, and multinational corporations are significant actors on the world stage, busy establishing a new international division of labour. Manufacturing units are shifted from place to place depending on considerations such as the presence of cheap labour, compliant governments and tax-havens. In this sense multinational corporations embody the independence of core and periphery nations. However the modernization has certainly brought material abundance, but in a differentiated pattern that is reflected in the complex nature of social classes and identities. It has brought control of natural environment this too, at the cost of damaging it, some would say, irreparably.

Appropriately the word ‘Democracy’ is of Greek origin .the Greek word Democratic is a combination of the words demos (meaning the people) and kratos (meaning power or rule).so democracy in both the ancient and modern worlds is the idea of rule by the people, whether directly-through personal participation or indirectly, through elected representative. Democracy was achieved through struggle and against considerable odds. Indeed, the struggle for democracy everywhere and throughout history, has simultaneously a struggle against political inequality based on, and justified by, inequalities of birth and wealth. A democracy is in few forms like as historically, theoretically, and geographically. Even as it has become the most dominant principle of modern political system, democracy is still fraught with many new and contemporary challenges. The history of democracy tends to begin with an invocation to its origins in ancient Greece. Democracy in the modern world bears any similarity with democracy in ancient Greece. It has been, and continues to remain, one of the most contested concepts in the political vocabulary of the modern world. It means many different things to different people, but the fact that all manner of political regimes have sought to appropriate the label ‘democracy’ to legitimize them, clearly shows that it carries a positive normative connotation. Rather like justice and freedom then democracy is widely perceived to be a good thing, and a desirable attribute for a polity to process. Task of determining which democracies are truly worthy of the name, or of distinguishing between polities in terms of the extent of democracy they have achieved, is a difficult if not impossible one. But judging contemporary democracies is so fraught with difficulty; the task of describing the evaluation of democracy in the modern world is no less contentious. Historians disagree about the origins of modern democratic ideas, as also about the emergence of democratic institutions. The French declaration of the rights of man was an early statement of democratic principles, while for others it was a manifesto of the bourgeois class which. Though opposed to hierarchy based on nobility, was neither egalitarian nor democratic. By jean-Jacques Rousseau democracy is that, with his faith in the direct participation of the citizens in the making of laws, who is the premier philosopher of democracy. John Locke is for some the first significant theorist of liberal-democratic ideas, for others he is at best a theorist of constitutional government. But the 2500 years of (1992) democracies were enthusiastically celebrated all over the world. This anniversaries statesman, founding of nations are quite commonly celebrated. Democracy in modern world is quite different from democracy as it was practiced in ancient Greece 2500 years ago. The practice of democracy is in the modern world having varied greatly. Each of the nation-states that today claims to be democratic has arrived at its own distinctive form of democracy by a quite distinctive route. History, society and economy are powerful influences shaping democracy, as are democratic ideas and ideal. It is a mix of material and the ideological that must explain democracy anywhere. Finally we can say that, the struggle for democracy is never concluded; it just constantly assumes new forms.

Political thought is related to politics, but it is history that provides political thought its very basis. Political thought can not be studies without politics sometime it may possible but we cannot study political thought without history.  We must follow history to understanding political thought, so it is in historical context. A political philosopher’s political philosophy emerges in the age of philosopher breaths. Plato classification of states depicted the classification as it prevailed then; his theory of education was drawn heavily from what existed in Athens and Sparta then. Machiavelli’s whole methodology depicted his debt of history. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau made history as the basis interpretation of history. The objectives conditions of history always provide the foundations on which the political philosophers have built their philosophy. We can understand the political philosophy of a political thinker only in the historical context. Separate a political philosopher from his times, one will always find a proper condemning Plato as an enemy of open society. A contextual study is always a safer method of understanding a text. It is true that a text without a context is a structure without a base. In this sense Machiavelli is better understood in the context of renaissance. But Hobbes Locke, with their views as apart as the north-south poles, can be better studied in the background of the English civil war. Also Marx can be understood in the light of the growing capitalism of the European western society. Is it western political thought is based on history? But its history, Professor Sabine rightly says, has no concluding chapter. This has grown and is growing and in fact, will always keep growing. This has grown in a typical way; each subsequent philosopher criticizes the philosophy or political ideas of an earlier philosopher, and in the process builds his own philosophy. Here Aristotle did so with Plato, Locke did so with filmer, Bentham with Blackstone, john Stuart mill, with Bentham, Marx did so with Hegel, Adam smith, proudhon. Then western political thought has grown its proceeds on polemics, it changes, but it continues. It is continuing since the days of Plato and Aristotle. No wonder if then it is said that all philosophy is a footnote to Plato. Plato and Aristotle together gave the base on which stands the whole fabric of western political thought, for political idealism and political realism are the two pillars of the western political philosophy from where rise numerous other related shades. So we can say that it is not easy to identify what the western political thought contains. The attempt, indeed, would be arbitrary. However, major contents of the western political thought can be, for the sake of making a point, be stated, to be political institution, and procedures, political idealism and realism. Lastly we can say that western political thought is rich in its contents. It has helped in stating the utility of political institutions, political procedures to be followed. It has given the western tradition values such as democracy, nationalism, liberty, justice and above all the two parallel pillars, idealism and realism; on which rest the major frameworks of political theory within which most theorists operate.