Online Education Blog

This article is under construction

Feudal society had a hierarchical structure in which individuals had their designated positions. King was at the top of this structure who bestowed fiefs or estates on a number of lords. The lords distributed fiefs to a number of vassals who had their specified duties and obligations. The knights were at the bottom of this hierarchy and performed military duties. The whole system worked on strong bonds of personal loyalty and allegiance.

The feudal system had its own specific forms and structures. The feudal ties involved a series of obligations binding on lords, vassals and peasants. Homage and the acknowledgment of obligation of fidelity to lord was the governing principle. The fief in the form of a landed estate was of varying size. It was also in the form of public authority or a duty or right. Elaborate rules governed the inheritance of fiefs where lords had their defined powers. The peasantry within a manor had a sort of stratification some enjoying rights and others completely subjugated. The cultivators were subjected to heavy land tax and various chesses. The institution of knights evolved out of the   need for armed power to protect the manors and suppress dissent inside it. While going through this unit you must have noticed that the form and structure of feudalism was not uniform in the whole of Europe and there were significant variations in different regions which were pointed out during our discussion.

Forms and structure of the feudaral society.

The legal complex of acts by which one free man placed himself in the protection of another was known as commendation. The primary rite of commendation was known as homage, which all classes performed during the Merovingian period but came to be limited under the Carolingian kings to the members of the aristocratic class. Reflecting the improvement of the status of vassalage in the middle of the eight century, the Carolingian added to the ceremony an oath of fealty (vassal’s acknowledgment of fidelity to his lord) to emphasize the fact that the vassals, now comprising the members of aristocracy, served as free men. In principle at least the contract of vassalage was regarded as one freely concluded between the two parties. The doing of homage and the taking an oath of fealty were fairly frequently accompanied, especially in France, by a ceremonial kiss (osculum,0, which was not only a spectacular way of confirming the obligations contracted by the two parties, but also lent dignity to the status of the vassal.

The lord or the chief of a group of vassals could both keep the vassal in his own house and feed, cloth and equip him at his own expense, or he could endow him with an estate or regular incomes derived from land and leave him to provide for his own maintenance. When a lord died without a certain heir, his vassals were regarded as the vassals of his lord until an heir to the decreased was legally established. In other words, the rights of a lord in the fiefs of his vassals necessarily reverted on his death without heirs to the lord of whom he ultimately held those fiefs. A fief normally consisted of a landed estate, which could very greatly in size. But a fief might also be some form of public authority, or a duty or right, including the right to tolls and market dues, the rights of minting and justice, the functions of advocate, mayor, provost, receiver, and so on. These fiefs which had no territorial basis consist or in the right. To certain payment made at regular intervals were known as ‘money fiefs’ inheritance of fiefs:- as long as the inheritance of fiefs had not become an established custom, the lord could demand some recompense from the aspiring candidate before admitting him as a vassal. To fealty and homage and investing him with the fief. The payment which the lord exacted on, this account was commonly known as relief, which could vary depending upon the importance of the particular fief in question-from a horse and the equipment of a knight to one year’s revenue of the fief.

Allods:-while feudal tenure – the villain tenements and the fiefs – was certainly the most common mode of holding land, it was not the only form of real property rights. There was the ‘allods’which remained independent to a significant degree owing to the porous and limited nature of the feudal network of dependent ties. The allodial right was one of complete ownership, not subject to any conditions of service or payment.

Manors:- The fundamental unit of economic production as well as social life in the feudal order was the manor. A manor was first and foremost an agglomeration of small dependent farms directly subjected to the authority of a lord and farmed by serfs or peasant cultivators bound to the soul. In a characteristic manor the village was composed of peasant households clustered together in crude homes around the nucleus of a church, grist and stone mill, blacksmith shop, wine press, bakery and other facilities. Though the manorial village was not entirely self-sufficient since certain essential commodities like salt or metal – were had to be obtained from outside sources, most of the daily needs of the peasants could be met with the goods produced within the manor. The majority of the manorial population was a vast body of servile peasantry of diverse origins, although over the course of the centuries the traces of the distinction mostly disappeared for all practical purposes.

Knights, tournaments and chivalry:-a knight was essentially a mounted warrior in the service of his liege – lord using the speed and momentum of a charge, the horse could trample his rider’s enemies and the rider could use the long lance to injure his foes while he remained out of reach of their weapons. The true knight also disdained all tricks in battle and was not supposed to strike an unarmed or unprepared enemy. Although it was held that a knight ought to help all ladies to the utmost of his power, especially if they had been deprived of their rights, or was in distress of any kind, he was expected to choose one as the special object of his attraction. To win her grace, or to enhance her reputation, he sought adventures, and fought for her both in war and tournaments. However, chivalry might be understood more as a normative guide of knight’s behavior than as a true reflection of what the knights actually did.

The Maya civilization flourished between 500 B.C. and 1000A.D. (classical period: 300-900 A.D.). Maya civilization extends over a large area including Belize, Guatemala, southeastern Mexico and the western parts of Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya civilization was a unique civilization because it was not concentrated in the form of an empire or unified political identity rather it was scattered in rather form of different urban and rural centre’s which were inter-connected. Symbolic sculptures on the monuments at smaller centres emphasize the influence of the bigger centers. The administrative set-up indicates that large states and cities dominated over small states and cities. At certain stage, four huge primary regional centre’s were emerging, each with its own structural sculptures and ruling dynasty. These were Tikal, calakmul, Copan and Palenque. These four centres remain paramount as long as Maya civilization existed. Their monumental architecture, fine art, hieroglyph or writing, astronomy and calendar make them one of the most sophisticated civilizations of the world. The architectural remains of Maya civilization are brilliant specimens of rich art and craft. At the centre of the city was the central ceremonial court surrounded by a large plaza including markets, besides there were enormous reservoirs, broad causeways, ball-courts and smaller monuments. The use of lime mortar and corbelled arch was a distinguish feature of the Maya architecture. Mayas also built ball courts, pyramids, gateways etc. the representations of deities were carved on the stucco masks. The Mayas had a system of raised causeways or a developed road system called scab. The Mayas also used the sea route. They had a special kind of boat which is 8 feet in breadth. The head of Maya city states were halach uinic. He was both spiritual and temporal authority of their city states. A batabob was responsible for the governance of his own resident city. The batabobs were a set of officials who also used to settle disputes. Besides their, was ah cuch cabob who were nominally under batabobs. They could veto any move by the batabob. People of lower classes used to serve the men of upper class. Land and salt pits were commontly owned. Agriculture and weaving were the main occupations.

The civilization of Mesopotamia developed around Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Euphrates is the lifeline of the ancient civilization. The flood plain of Euphrates was cultivated to have been a prosperous peasantry. The southern plains are also called ‘Sumer’. It was the land of the Sumerian. Sumer is a semi-arid desert, which was sparsely vegetated. In the lower and lowest reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, the land is marshy, and both connect the small villages to one another. The main occupations were fishing and hunting. In the tall reed growths, birds and wild pigs were hunted. In Sumer the rainfall is not enough for good production of staple crops like wheat and barely. Flax was the vegetable fiber, besides there were peas, vetch, beans, onions, cucumber etc. between November and April with a simple technology the water of the Euphrates was diverted into canals or ditches and then into individual fields. Irrigation and the use of the seeder plough contributed to tremendously high outputs. Pastoralism was complementary to agriculture. Often members of the same community could be either pastoralists or cultivators because some families specialized in pastoralism, the animal wealth of ancient Mesopotamia was enormous and wool, the chief fabric was exported. Mesopotamia’s wool for carts, boats, and roof beams came mostly from the zagros and the Lebanon. Metals were also exported. The plains of the lower Tigris and the Euphrates were occupied soon after about 5000 BC, in the ubaid period. There were small fishing settlements in the beginning, but agricultural life was established soon thereafter. Material culture was limited. In the following uruk period the population rose, many more villages came into existence. There is evidence for the plough and the wheel, and towards the end of the period written records are attested, the late uruk period, best represented at the extensive site of the uruke, also saw the invention of the cylinder seal, and experiments with the construction of large monumental temples. The range of materials in use also increased considerably. Yet, what is significant is that, as in Egypt, many developments took place in a short span of time. During the short Jamdat Nasr period the writing system and seal carving underwent important development.

According to Maritz Julius Bonn, “Imperialism” is a policy which aims at creating,  ‘organizing and maintaining an empire; that is a state of vast size composed of various more or less distinct national unit s and subject to a single centralized will”  Charles a beard wrote : “Imperialism is…..employment of the engines of government and diplomacy to  acquire territories, protectorates, and on spheres of influence occupied usually by other races or peoples, and to promote industrial, trade, and investment opportunities …..”A clear yet crisp definition was given by p.t. moon. He wrote, “Imperialism ….means domination of non- European native races by totally dissimilar European nations. “Thus moon clearly indicates domination of colored peoples of Asia and Africa by the Europeans who considered themselves superior and their colonial administration as burden on the white man. Though Beard excludes all economic motivations, the history of imperialism definitely points to economic exploitation as a primary drive in expansion of the empire by western countries. History reveals that the world has gone through many stages of development. It is known that the history of humankind is related to the development of society and social structures. Capitalism generally developed out of feudalism, and was Responsible for colonialisation and imperialism, Feudalism prevailed before the 16^th- 17^th century. In Europe, feudalism was generally associated with medieval states based on aristocracies (run by kings and nobles) who controlled the economic and political power of the state. The church too had an important role in the functioning of the feudal state. Feudalism as a system began to decay in different parts of Europe, beginning from England in the thirteenth century. The industrial revolution, the growth of towns, inter-feudal wars etc. led to this decline , social life in Europe thus began to change, this also involved a change from the feudal type economic organization to a different one where the control was no longer with the land owning aristocracies. Independent groups of merchants and traders began dominating the economy. This meant, thus, the growth of new classes which formed the bases for mercantile capitalism. The letter was a transition from feudalism to capitalism to capitalism, which was prevalent between the 16^th and 19^th centuries. The kind of transformation made by each nation out of feudalism differed. For example in England capitalism grew faster than in any other European nations. France followed this transition and later Germany, Russia and others did the same. Thus each transition was a unique experience. Industrialization in Europe led the capitalists to look for raw materials and markets outside Europe. This search fueled imperial penetrations into Asia and Africa. Capitalism can be defined as a system in which goods and services are produced for exchange in the market so that profit is made. The form of capital in the capitalist system is deferent from that of the feudal system where merchant capital was dominant. Under capitalism productive capital dominates, that is capital invested in labor power. Labor power is what the worker has to sell in exchange for money in order to survive. This labor power is then organized in the production process to produce new commodities for making more profit. Thus the capital of the merchants and financiers circulated and are invested for commodity production. The function of this merchant finance, Capital is determined and based on the need of productive capital. Labor power thus becomes like a commodity which can be bought and sold according to market prices. The growth of capitalism had an important effect on the social and political life of people and social systems. Just it had on their economic life. Capitalism brought about the formation of two large classes- the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class. In addition to these there also give rise to new political systems wherein besides landed aristocracies, other classes’ also shared state power as in England. Similarly it led to the overthrow of the French landed aristocracy and brought into being the French republic. Thus with capitalism began as era of private enterprises in the economic sphere and popular participation in the exercise of state power in the political sphere.

The religion of Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. He established the Islamic state in the desert land of medina. Initially Islam was by and large the answer to the problems which were faced by a tribal society. It was undergoing a transitory period. But in course of time Islam spread out over a vast area. Areas which had highly developed cultural and political traditions of their own deliberately adopted the thoughts and principles of Islam. The principle of Islam was a new principle of solidarity and unity. Prophet Muhammad mission was to bind or unify the divided section of the Arab society in accordance with the unifying principle of Islam. His mission, first unconscious and then deliberate was followed by his personal realization of almighty’s presence. Before him man’s only response could be of worship and gratitude. Muhammad was personally aware of god’s mercy and benevolence when he was alone and meditating. He realizes that one had to submit himself totally to lord. He would judge him one day. This concept of personal obligation and responsibility to god was alien to the wealthy merchants and different tribes who were glorified with their own narrow-minded obligations. Muhammad’s conception of god was a weak tradition of monotheism. Muhammad was convinced that he had been chosen by Allah as Rasul Allah, Muhammad began to spread messages which condemned unfair practices and stressed on the social obligation of the wealthy people. Commerce was not in the centre of condemnation. He sought to establish a new sense of community based on the realization of the man before the creator. One of the first disciple s who accepted Prophet Muhammad’s mission was his wife khadija and his cousin ali. In course of time Muhammad could manage to gather a group of followers around him who shared his ideals. Most of his followers in the earlier stages were the members of the weaker clans, the junior member of the powerful clans, women and outsiders, slaves or client. In the beginning ideas of Muhammad were ignored. Gradually strict opposition began. In hard times his clan and its leader Abu Talib protected Muhammad and his followers. In 615/16 Muhammad decided to send some of followers to Ethiopia to protect weaker section among the Muslims from persecutions. They didn’t have clan backing. To resist this step other clans continued to exert pressure on Abu Talib. An economic and martial boycott was also instituted against the clan of hashimites(Hashemite may be). But finally all attempts failed and Muhammad was successful in converting the major opponent of Islam region umar ibn al khattab.the most significant crisis for Muhammad came in 619 A.D. when Abu Talib died and Abu wahab succeeded him. The later denied giving any clan protection to Muhammad and his followers. The prophet was therefore forced to look for a new home for himself and his community. Muhammad realized that to survive and let his new religion survive he had to migrate some other place. Islam had to harness the political and economic power of a major tribe or an alliance of tribes. Ultimately the migration to the oasis of yathrib which was later renamed medina took place. It was seen as a turning point in the history of Islam. The Mecca’s found Muhammad and his new religion intolerable. They also resented the attack on usury. In 620 A.D. Muhammad had began a dialogue with a delegation from medina and in 622 after prolonged negotiation, they pledged physically protection to Muhammad and his followers. Thereafter, Muslims began to emigrate to medina. Muhammad left Mecca secretly because he feared that the Mecca’s might stop him from leaving Mecca. Muhammad reached medina on the twenty fourth of September 622. It is same year which was symbolised by the decision to begin the Islamic calendar. Around the oasis in medina a group of Jews had settled. It was not a compact commercial hub like mecca. Rather it was an oasis inhabited by different tribal groups and a number of smaller but influential Jewish groups, Later Muslims emigrated at medina. They could not suddenly become agriculturists. To keep in competition and also to survive they resorted looking, kept one fifth to him to be spent on community affairs. The rest was the rest was distributed among the Muslims. The rest was distributed among the Muslims. Muhammad’s prestige was at its peak when he proved himself to be the most successful military leader. As a result more Arabs began to convert. In medina dissensions appeared between the Jews and the Muslims because the Jews didn’t believe in Muhammad’s claims. Some Jewish tribes also conspired with the Mecca’s. In 625 A.D. a major attack was launched against the Muslims. Seventy five Muslims were killed in the war that followed. The war an uhud failed to prove victorious for the Mecca’s. Later Muhammad encouraged Muslims to take four wives to solve the problems of the widows of those killed the war. The Mecca’s tried again with a much larger force but failed again. Muhammad’s success attracted more tribes to embrace Islam. The meccan’s realized that to survive and prosper they had to reach a treaty with the Muslims. Muhammad himself was not interested in destroying mecca and its people. He realised that any prolongation meccans by going to Ka’ba to perform hajj. Finally a truce was arranged and Mecca surrendered without a fight in 630 A.D. Muhammad tried to reconcile old a news ideas in his new religion. When mecca fell, the people were graciously accepted into the umrah. Most of treated as zimmis or protected people.

The people of medina embraced Islam after the fall of Mecca. Those who didn’t were.

The word renaissance means re-birth. But over the last two centuries the word has acquired a new meaning. Renaissance is an Italian word which is associated with major social and cultural development in Europe. This change took place between the 13^th and the 15^th century. The contribution of the renaissance to the emergence of modernity in early modern Europe has been for many years an appropriate entry point to the history of the modern world. It was in renaissance Italy and the modern world that a new view of man as a creative individual emerged. Man started to think that the only way to shape his destiny without depending on god is to try without any fault— Michelangelo’s painting of the newly discovered greatness of man was depicted in the creation of Adam in the Sistine chapel. The idea of a free and creative man was not however a consequence of renaissance social thought only reformation made its unique contribution to a spirit of self consciousness by privatising religious practice and Protestantism Fundamentally put forward an individualistic psyche. Renaissance had brought in new ideas with the emergence of new groups like lawyer and notaries. They interpreted the ruler of written agreements and ruler regarding any other course of action without which trade on large scale was not possible. These were the notaries’ specialists who did not need the long and costly education provided by law schools but who did not receive training in Latin grammar and theories of rhetoric. Such training in letter writing and drafting of language cannot be widely seen. Since the 19^th century, historians have labelled the new culture as humanism. It appears nowhere in the writings of the renaissance itself. The term that did exist was ‘humanistic studies’. It implies academic subjects put forward by humanists. By the first half of the 15^th century, the term humanists means those masters who taught academic subjects like grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. They were the members of a particular professional group, who taught humanities and liberal arts-humanities a classical world earlier used by Cicero as a substitute for the Greek paideia or culture. Cicero was trying to make the point that it was only human beings who were capable of this knowledge about their own selves. Renaissance humanism was conceived as a new philosophy of life. It is a glorification of human nature in secular term, eludes precise definition. Indeed there is no definite set of common beliefs. An aggravated sense of nationalism or individualism, was the new pattern of historical consciousness that emerged—first in the leading 14^th century thought. The humanist self image as free agents of civilization was sharpened by such historical consciousness which enabled them to distinguish their time as an age of light from the preceding world of darkness. The barbarian, the humanists belonging to different generations returned to this theme of belonging to a new time. Invention of a new concept of the middle ages between the collapse of Rome and the cultural renewal in the age of renaissance,  Leonardo Bruni, for sometime the chancellor of Florence, in his history of Florence or flavio Biando in a work covering the whole advancement. Thus renaissance in an idea which evolved in a time when there was a political religions and sociological turmoil prevalent in the existing society. It brought in new ideas and experiences which ushered in a new era.

Medieval Europe experienced centralization of power in the heads of the king it was quite different from the professional attitude and proficiency which modern bureaucracy displays. Royal absolutism monopolised power in its own favour and appointment in important posts were being made purely on the basis of king’s appraisal. The feudal lords were appointed for their loyalty and efficiency was not a mother of prime importance. The transformation took place in the nineteenth century in Europe. All challenges from feudal nobilities and local estates had been overcome. The modern state could accumulate apparently unlimited resources by means of industrialization. The main challenges before the state was to harness and exploit these vast resources, besides there were newer sources, both material and human. The state began to take direct interest in different fields like industry, education health etc. To mobilise and use the resources efficiency new institutions and professions were required. The emergence of professional bureaucracies takes place against this background. The direct activities of the state vastly expanded. Starting with Britain from the 1830s, but all these were accompanied by a comparable campaign against corruption which is a direct result of bureaucracy. Professionals were being appointed especially through the competitive examination. In stages from 1870, entry into the civil service was to take place through competitive examinations. The professionals took changes everywhere and education itself became a form of investment. This process was slower in France. The France had a reputation for absolutist states, royal bureaucracies and Napoleonic efficiency. High levels of proficiency and bureaucracy were attained in Paris, but the provinces remained in the hads of local interests to a degree greater than Germany or Berlin. In Russia extraordinary concentration of power at the top tends to make it an under governed country. In the second half of the 19^th century political parties also changed into bureaucratic structures. In the 1860s they transformed themselves into large mass organizations. In Britain, the party used to be a loose association of groups engaged in regional or local polities. From about 1867 the loose polities of local parties changed as the parties began to be more organized and centralized. Both liberal and conservative party, benefit societies, each of them organized their own constituency associations. These associations were centralized. The central unit were empowered to exercise full control over the local units. The German party system developed in compatible manner. In 1875 SPD or the social democratic party was formed. Indeed the German civil service became something of a model across the ideological spectrum, the contrast to some extent in the France and the Mediterranean states, France being predominantly occupied with weaker organizational structures. Than the German or the British counterparts. The reason is mainly because of the size of the parties. After the Second World War the communist party became an excellent bureaucracy in typically Stalinist fashion. The fascist bureaucracies formally submitted to the principle of leadership. But this leadership is not a single leadership but a virtual leadership. The bureaucratization of political parties means democratization of the bureaucracy. A political party in this context is conceived as an agent of democracy. In the matter of single party system the bureaucracies are of two types the party and the state.

The democratic institutions of modern times which embody the hopes of the exploited are the trade unions. The trade unions are the organizations which undergoes a new wave of industrialization, new technologies, and above all new structures of management. The emergence of professional management was conceived in the act of professional workers who are not only skilled but also trained on the job. They could frame plans for action, committee work and negotiation eventually they began to play an important role in politics both at national and regional. Unions supported particular political parties. They have to work in union with each other at the bureaucratic level, for the purposes of national representation. Unions built up national organizations to represent them, for ex trade union congress (TUC) in Britain, the confederation general du travail (CGT) In France.

Bureaucratization could be said into encompass the process both of the centralization, and expansion and of the professionalization of all institutions, and this happens as much in government as in the other principal structures of power like political parties, trade unions, corporations, the armed forces, and the educational, religious, legal, and medical and other technical establishments, as also what has come to be known as the non-governmental organization.

Bureaucracies are only instruments of modern rulers: they are not the rulers themselves. How rulers are chosen is varied; but in most of the world it occurs through some form of election rather than rising to the top of a bureaucracy. The electoral process are not bureaucratic even if they must submit to rulers most often; but the electoral machines like political parties and their supporters are or attempt to be thoroughly bureaucratic organizations, thus those at the top who ultimately rule, reach that position through processes that are not bureaucratic; but they rule through investments that are bureaucratic.

These occur alongside what is known as democratization. This appears as a paradox, since it is always assumed that bureaucracy and democracy are opposed in principle. Indeed they are, but they can and do coexist and even reinforce each other. But more, of we understand democracy, not as rule by the people so much as legitimating of rulers by the people through elections, then bureaucracy is fully compatible with it. Further, democracy also implies the active citizen ascending rights in numerous spheres, claiming new rights, forming organizations to promote them, and participating in the political process. Every one of these actions by the active citizen required powerful organization and funding; and even the active citizen furthering democracy acts through a bureaucracy.

It is customary to note the process of formation of bureaucracy from about the fifteenth until the eighteenth century in Europe as royal absolutisms imposed themselves against feudal nobilities. However, this was more a process of centralization of power in the hands of the king, not of its professionalization in the manner of a modern bureaucracy.

Transformation occurred in the nineteenth century, in Europe, by when the challenge from feudal nobilities and local estates had been overcome, and the modern state accumulated apparenting unlimited resources through industrialization. The challenge before the state was to harness and exploit these vast new resources and over newer sources, both material and human. Generating and exploiting material resources took the form of industrialization; doing the same with human resources took the form of social mobilization. Entirely new institution and professions were required for these activities; and the emergence of professional bureaucracies takes place against this background, the first of these were the direct servants of the state, the civil servants and the armed forces.

The process was completed in the next wave of reforms in the 1860s and 1870s during the first government of W.E.Gladstone (1867-1874). In stages from 1870, entry into the civil service was to take place through competitive examination, purchase of commissions in the army was abolished; in 1873 seven courts of law dating from medieval times were merged into one court of judicature, and the obviously unprofessional judicial functions of the house of lords were terminated; and in 1871 the Anglican church’s monopoly of teaching parts of oxford and Cambridge was ended. This process was slower in France, despite the French reputation for absolutist states, royal bureaucracies and Napoleonic efficiency. These high levels of professionalism and bureaucracy were attained in Paris, but the province remained in the hands of local interest to a degree greater than in Germany or Britain, although less than in the Mediterranean. Napoleon certainly conceived of bureaucracy as a perfect chain of command in which the central authority issued instructions that passed “swift as an electric current” to subordinates, that is the perfects (like the district magistrates in India) governing the 83 departments (districts), sub-prefects in the arrondissements, and mayors in the 36,000 communes. The model was of perfect bureaucracy, and the perfect enjoyed ample power of every kind that a government in a modernizing state can posses and hence dispensed patronage as a local potentate.

Some of the main features of the modern world are the formation of the nation states, the expansion of Europe, technological changes, and the incorporation of the whole world into one international system. Technological change and economic integration were greatly accelerated during after the two world wars in the 20^th century. Consequently globalization took place and conditions. For new challenges, opportunities and rivalries in the 21^st century were created the 20^th century was termed the “age of extremes” by historian Eric Hobsbawm because it saw unprecedented death and destruction during two world wars and other conflicts. But parallel during the same century there was remarkable advancements mad in the field of science, economics and humanity. The 20^th century is also called the short century to highlight the impact of the Great War, the Russian revolution and the collapse of the Soviet Union on the whole world. Rivalries between the traditional ‘great powers’ of Europe, brought about the catastrophes of the first and the second world wars. The second half of the  20^th century was dominated by a multifaceted rivalry known as the cold war between the western or capitalist ‘bloc’ and the eastern or communist ‘bloc’. At this time enormous arsenals of nuclear weapons were amassed by both US and the USSR. Other international rivalries in various regions of the world such as south Asia and west Asia, and international tensions within many newly independent, ethnically plural and economically underdeveloped countries sometimes accompanied the cold war. Though cold war ended at a particular time, during the post cold war period several unresolved conflicts continued into a new century. The 20^th century was marked by rivalries between France and Germany Military and naval expansion. Mobilization plans and a tightening of hostile coalitions built a momentum for war over riding arguments for peace emanating from trade, industry and good sense, international crisis erupted over Bosnia Herzegovina in1908. Morocco in 1911, and the Balkans in 1912, but were defused by negotiation and restraint. In 1914 the First World War was declared on Germany by Britain. The US declared war on Germany only on April 6, 1917. Germany gains on both eastern and western fronts were nullified. An armistice war declared on November 11, 1918 and a peace conference opened in Paris on 18 January 1919. Territorial changes failed to solve the basic problems of insecurity in Europe. The Ottoman Empire too was abolished with the treaty of Sevres, 1920; turkey became a republic its Arab provinces were placed under the British Empire. In accordance with the treaty of Versailles Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Poland became independent. Austria ceded some of its parts to Sicily. In the post world war-1 period there were continuous disputes over borders and treatment of minorities in eastern and central Europe. The small new states were equally fearful of Germany to their west and Russia to the east. The League of Nations proved unequal to the task of maintaining peace, not least Russia was the first great power to collapse under the strain of the Great War. From the beginning of 1917 Russia experienced a treatment domestic political and socio-economic with several factions struggling to gain exclusive power. Totalitarianism was not confined to the Soviet Union and surfaced to varying degrees in the 1920s and 1930s in Italy, Japan, and Spain and most completely in Germany. Benito Mussolini established a fascism regime in Italy in October 1921.in 1936 Mussolini signed a pact with Adolph Hitler to create a ‘Berlin Rome axis’ Japan determination drive since the late.19^th century led it to graft what it considered the best of America, Britain and Germany. Japans 21 demands were not met at Versailles. As a strong power of Asia Japan announced its withdrawal from the league in 1933.the second world war was a total war unprecedented in its destruction of military and non-military assets and people, and truly world wide in its scope. In September 1939 it out broke in Europe. It is immediately followed by the Sino-japans war and succeeded in 1941 by the entry of USA against both Japan and Germany. The war in Europe ended with Germany’s surrender on 10 may 1945 and in Asia with japans surrender on 15 august 1945. Year Second World War ended. Within two years of the end of the Second World War the chief victors had fallen out with each other. Europe was divided into two opposite forces. The main rivalry was between Russia and USA. It is known as cold war.